An Evening With Pagans Essays - Wicca, Mother Goddesses,

An Evening With Pagans An Evening with the Pagans~ A brief history of paganism~ Over 25,000 years ago, our ancestors across the continent practiced an ancient form of religion known as paganism. During the Neolithic and Paleolithic time era, our ancestors were in awe of the great manifestations of nature. Due to lack of scientific thought, they were riddled with ignorance and superstition. Everything had a supernatural explanation. They associated each naturalistic phenomena with a type of god, inscribing inanimate objects with life -like characteristics .This practice is referred to as animism. Every element ,be it thunder ,rain or the sun ,was thought to be a god (or goddess) within it. Eventually their gods became an object of worship known as polytheism. Eventually many forms of polytheism evolved to what is known as paganism. Modern Paganism Now defined as :The worship of a god or goddess whose roots are in pre-Christian Western Europe. Modern paganism is alive and well today. It consists of many sub-divisions .These include ~Wicca ,druidism Santeria and many others. Wicca focuses on the worship of a god and goddess .In Wicca ,there is a plethora of pantheon of deities that one can choose from including: Greek, Norse ,roman etc...... Focusing on a Greek Wiccan tradition ,this will be describing the pagan festival of Hectare. The Festival of Hecate The festival of Hecate is celebrated between the 3rd and 4th Saturday of August. (which ever is closest to the new moon) It is in honor of the Greek goddess Hecate. She was first worshipped in ancient Greece -called the triple goddess of magic. She is often represented in triple form ; maiden (youth) ,mother (fertility) and crone (the wise woman). In ancient Rome ,she was known as trevia ,the cross road with three paths. Hecate is symbolized by the phases of the moon. Each attribute correlates with a particular phase of the moon. The waxing moon (maiden),the full moon (mother) and the new moon( crone). The Ceremony~ Upon arrival at the festival in Georgetown Delaware, everyone gathers for the lecture. This is to educate the newcomers as to what the ceremony entails. The ceremony is always rehearsed before it is performed. After the lecture ,there is a large potluck feast to keep everyone energized for the evenings festivities. The processional~ When the sun sets, the processional begins. With everyone in their appropriate magical attire,(consisting of a robe and jewelry) everyone lines up proceeds with the first phase. This is called consecration- each person is consecrated . This is done by covering the body in incense smoke and sprinkling of water. This is a purification process that cleanses the body of negative energy prior to the ritual. Next each person is permitted to enter the circle one by one. Once everyone is inside the circle, the next phase begins. Calling of the quarters~ At this point ,the high priest/priestess begins the calling of the quarters or summoning the elements. Each direction is marked by an altar and each is represented by an element. West =air, east=water , north=earth and south=fire. The high priest approaches each point ,says a chant and ends the chant with the phrase hail and welcome. After the elements are called , the highpoint of the ritual begins ~ the invocation The Invocation~ The invocation is where the goddess is invited to attend the ceremony. The invitation is done through a series of chants . Ex: He Kau ,He Kau , He Kau Hecate trevia trimorphos Hecate queen of the moon and all her phases 3 X''s (Hek a ta) Next 3 women are chosen to represent Hecate ,each representing one of her aspects.(they are chosen prior to the ritual) The maiden is in white (purity) the mother in red (fertility) and crone in black(wisdom) These women remain in the circle. At this point the goddess speaks to the participants .Each one gives a brief message ,usually a blessing or advice. Once the crone has finished, each participant is invited to approach any of the three forms and speak to them. They may ask for advice ,offering or a boon. Once everyone has had their turn to speak with Hecate,the group becomes silent. The goddess is thanked and dismissed. Sometimes during a ritual a participant may feel a bit overwhelmed with the energy that has been raised. It is for this reason ,that the next phase ,called grounding takes place. This is done by simply placing the hands on the ground and releasing the energy. Once the grounding has been performed,it is time to close the quarters or dismiss the elements. Like the opening

Free Essays on AI

Artificial Intelligence Recently, the media has spent an increasing amount of broadcast time on new technology. The focus of high-tech media has been aimed at the flurry of advances concerning artificial intelligence (AI). What is artificial intelligence and what is the media talking about? Are these technologies beneficial to our society or mere novelties among business and marketing professionals? Medical facilities, police departments, and manufacturing plants have all been changed by AI but how? These questions and many others are the concern of the general public brought about by the lack of education concerning rapidly advancing computer technology. Artificial intelligence is defined as the ability of a machine to think for itself. Scientists and theorists continue to debate if computers will actually be able to think for themselves at one point (Patterson 7). The generally accepted theory is that computers do and will think more in the future. AI has grown rapidly in the last ten years chiefly becau se of the advances in computer architecture. The term artificial intelligence was actually coined in 1956 by a group of scientists having their first meeting on the topic (Patterson 6). Early attempts at AI were neural networks modeled after the ones in the human brain. Success was minimal at best because of the lack of computer technology needed to calculate such large equations. AI is achieved using a number of different methods. The more popular implementations comprise neural networks, chaos engineering, fuzzy logic, knowledge based systems, and expert systems. Using any one of the aforementioned design structures requires a specialized computer system. For example, Anderson Consulting applies a knowledge based system to commercial loan officers using multimedia (Hedburg 121). Their system requires a fast IBM desktop computer. Other systems may require even more horsepower using exotic computers or workstations. Even more exotic ... Free Essays on AI Free Essays on AI Artificial Intelligence Recently, the media has spent an increasing amount of broadcast time on new technology. The focus of high-tech media has been aimed at the flurry of advances concerning artificial intelligence (AI). What is artificial intelligence and what is the media talking about? Are these technologies beneficial to our society or mere novelties among business and marketing professionals? Medical facilities, police departments, and manufacturing plants have all been changed by AI but how? These questions and many others are the concern of the general public brought about by the lack of education concerning rapidly advancing computer technology. Artificial intelligence is defined as the ability of a machine to think for itself. Scientists and theorists continue to debate if computers will actually be able to think for themselves at one point (Patterson 7). The generally accepted theory is that computers do and will think more in the future. AI has grown rapidly in the last ten years chiefly becau se of the advances in computer architecture. The term artificial intelligence was actually coined in 1956 by a group of scientists having their first meeting on the topic (Patterson 6). Early attempts at AI were neural networks modeled after the ones in the human brain. Success was minimal at best because of the lack of computer technology needed to calculate such large equations. AI is achieved using a number of different methods. The more popular implementations comprise neural networks, chaos engineering, fuzzy logic, knowledge based systems, and expert systems. Using any one of the aforementioned design structures requires a specialized computer system. For example, Anderson Consulting applies a knowledge based system to commercial loan officers using multimedia (Hedburg 121). Their system requires a fast IBM desktop computer. Other systems may require even more horsepower using exotic computers or workstations. Even more exotic ...

Fundimental of microboilogy Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Fundimental of microboilogy - Term Paper Example The catalase test is a biochemical test that can be used to identify between Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. The enzyme catalase contains a heme group and detoxifies hydrogen peroxide. The basic theory used in their identification is that one is catalase positive (Staphylococcus spp.) while other one (Streptococcus spp.) is catalase negative. If gas formation (O2) is observed in the form of bubbles, then it ensures that the sample of bacteria has a catalase; it is an indication of presence of Staphylococcus spp. Otherwise, on no gas formation, the sample contains Streptococcus spp. Non-selective medium is employed when organisms are present in low numbers. This also provides an indication about the type of organism present in the sample. The use of selective medium is to isolate the desired organism present in the mixed sample Nutrient agar is ideal as a non-selective culture medium to grow a large variety of microorganisms. In order to isolate microorganism from the agar plate, the part of colony is taken to a new agar plate. The streak-plate method can be employed as it reduces density of the microorganisms on the surface of the agar. This facilitates to obtain the distinct colonies of the microorganisms of our interest by using selective media (Selective and Differential Media 2012) Selective media inhibit the growth of some organism while promote growth of others. Selective inhibition is done by adding salts, dyes or specific inhibitors affecting the metabolism of the organisms. Crystal violet or penicillin will inhibit the growth of Gram-positive bacteria. Based on this philosophy, Tellurite agar is employed as media to identify for Gram-positive organisms. When gram negative organisms are to be selected or identified, the agar with penicillin (5-50- units/ml) is used (Selective and Differential Media 2012). Selective but differential media are

Bulling in NYC School Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Bulling in NYC School - Research Paper Example This essay approves that researchers have not agreed on the actual definition of bullying. There are definitions which have been in use and are worthy of quote here. Bullying is defined in a number of ways. Experts believe that there has been no clear definition of the term bullying. Bullying is also known as peer victimization and peer harassment. It is an intentional act of harming somebody by means of verbal, physical, sexual assault, or other forms of harassment. Bullying at school is believed a universal social malady. In many instances, bullies are stronger and more powerful than their victims, and the situation has the tendency to be repetitive. The study of bullying involves studies of children’s temperament. Bullying is peer abuse because it involves people in the same setting, students in the same school, or people who should have considered themselves companions with the same purpose and that is learning. This report makes a conclusion that that bullying is a â€Å"social sickness† that needs to be cured. And it is getting serious every day. It’s time authorities and the many stakeholders concerned with the welfare of the young to bond together and find effective means to heal this social malady. The young are victimized. Parents feel that their children are not anymore secured inside the school, a place where they ought to experience positive and moral values and learn good things in life. But it seems, schools are not anymore safe for the young.

Food Nutrition History

Food Nutrition History The history of food and nutrition dates back as far as the beginning of recorded history. In the era of hunters and gathers, people knew that they had to eat in order to survive. The teachings and techniques that were used to obtain food at that time came from trial and error. It was up to the people to figure out which foods were suitable and which could possibly cause illness or even death. The importance of food, specific dietary patterns and disease prevention were observed in the Indian Ayurvedic tradition, dating back to 2500 BCE (1). Looking beyond the medieval era, western science and medicine developed ways of thinking about food and health between 600 BCE and 300 CE (1). Societies throughout each era have looked at diet and nutrition as a means of healthy living and survival. Through the Renaissance and up to the eighteenth century, teaching noted that diet and nutrition were an integral part of having a fulfilled life (1). Many documents from ancient and historical times have evidence that inventions for food processing were becoming existent and new foods were being discovered. In this time, food was mostly produced and consumed entirely within the local area. A familys nourishment was provided by the food that was grown and prepared within the family and exchanged with nearby neighbors. Cooking and preservation techniques at this time were not necessarily safe but were evolving. During the industrial revolution, the introduction of railroads and wagon roads made the transfer of goods possible at greater distances. This shift began to affect the foods that people had access to and what they ate (2). The science of nutrition began to emerge in the early to mid nineteenth century. During this time, both Europe and the US were influenced by their governments to increase the yield of food from plant crops and animal herds (1). Food production held a very important role in nourishing the soldiers who were fighting in the war. Safe food was soon found to be the key for survival of troops, especially those who had been wounded and needed proper nourishment to fight illness and infection. Dietetics as a profession can be linked back to the evolution of home economics (3). The early evolution of food and nutrition science was explored to feed soldiers in battle and to also to provide necessary nutrition to those who were preparing to become young soldiers. Nutrition and appropriate food choices were demonstrated to young families to ensure healthy individuals. World War I brought food shortages. Those who were knowledgeable in dietetics encouraged others to plant gardens and learn how to develop recipes for home and hospital use. Both world wars observed the creation of dietetics as a profession (3). Many important people deserve credit in the history of Dietetics. Far more than five people contributed to its development. Dietetics is largely applied by the use of chemistry, it is necessary to recognize Antoine Lavoisier, who is known as the Father of Chemistry. Lavoisier was born into an upper class, Paris family in 1743. He was able to obtain a law degree at the College Mazarin, though he never practiced law. He had more interest in mathematics and science and gained membership into the Academy of Sciences at the age of 25 (4). Lavoisier had many contributions, to include the assistance in establishing the metric system, to naming 33 elements of periodic table. He died at the age of 51 from literally loosing his head, as he was found guilty of conspiracy against the people of France. Wilbur Olin Atwater, an American chemist, was born May 3, 1844 in Johnsburg, New York. Atwater is known for his studies in human nutrition and metabolism. He pursued an undergraduate degree at Wesleyan University in Connecticut and later went on to obtain his PhD from Yale Universitys Sheffield Scientific School in agricultural chemistry (5). Atwater invented a device called the respiration calorimeter that measured human metabolism balance by analyzing the heat produced and metabolic rate by a person performing certain activities. This new invention aided many new studies in dietary evolution and food analysis (1, 2, 5). Energy and protein sources were studied and measured to determine that certain foods provide different amounts of nutrients and energy than other. The fat, protein, and carbohydrates of all different kinds of foods were observed and soon there was an awareness of the food calorie. Atwater continued to lead research teams on discovering nutrient requirements, food composition and consumption, and consumer economics (6). Throughout his discoveries, Atwater determined that Americans eat more unhealthful foods than desired and do not exercise enough. Florence Nightingale, born 1820 in Tuscany into an upper class family, need be mentioned as a contributor to Dietetics as she was the one who acknowledged the need for safe and nutritious food for soldiers during the Crimean War (7). She was actually a pioneer nurse in her time and was determined to improve the living conditions at the camp hospitals and made and effort to clean and organize facilities where patients were cared for. Her contributions helped spread awareness of the necessity for clean, safe, and nutritious foods. There is a long history of health and nutrition and the involvement and contribution of many people and their discoveries has made great progress. Most of the progress has been made in the last 100 years, as new technologies have been a great asset to nutritional health and implementation. Scientific advances, social and economic factors, and military conflicts are contributors to the advancement of the dietetic profession as well. The most important contribution would have to be the determination and dedication by early dietitians who knew that there was a difference to be made and that they were the ones who would be able to make that difference. The understanding and importance of good eating habits was not common not known to most of society, or perhaps just not understood. Scientific experiments were documented and scholarly journals written, but they were for almost impossible to understand by anyone who was not in the dietetic profession. Alice Blood was the one who would be able to put all of the difficult works into something that could be understood by large public audience. She translated science-based nutrition information into easy-to-read pamphlets in an effort to educate people on good nutrition. Alice Blood obtained a bachelors degree from Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a PHD in biochemistry from Yale. She also held the title of director at the School of Household Economics at Simmons College in Massachusetts (8). Many changes came about in 1917 for the dietetics profession and many women contributed to these changes. A new organization, the American Dietetic Association [ADA], was born in the fall of 1917 when more than 100 women organized a meeting in Cleveland to discuss multiple issues within dietetics. Lulu Graves, a dietician in Cleveland, held a strong position that dietitians play an important role of the medical team and that when nutrition services are offered to patients, money is saved (8). This is a time when dietitians had the primary role of feeding the wounded and sick in hospitals. The doctors were the ones who could prescribe special diets for treatments and dietitians were like the physicians assistants. At this point, doctors were primarily male and all dietitians were female. Only three states allowed women to vote and women were not allowed to travel unaccompanied by a man (8). Graves stressed the importance of scientific training for dietitians and knew that the future of dietetics would be assured. Lulu Graves was elected the first president of the ADA (9). At the first meeting, many issues were discussed especially concerning food conservation and global food needs. This was an important for the Association to come together, as World War I was still in mission. The annual meeting to follow had greater attendance and included more states involvement. By the sixth annual meeting, which was held in Indianapolis in 1923, insulin was presented as the new treatment for diabetes (9). Insulin was discovered and isolated at the University of Toronto in 1921-1922 by Dr. Frederick Banting (10). Insulin is a hormone that is produced in the pancreas and is necessary to keep glucose levels in the blood at a safe and functional level. This was a major event in dietetic history, as the diagnosis and treatment of type 1 and type 2 diabetes continues to be at high demand. Food technology was on the rise going into the 1930s. Refrigerators, toasters, canned goods, frozen vegetables, sliced bread and many other developments were introduced. These new preparation and storage methods provided more convenience for keeping food on hand. Obesity became a health concern, which was the topic of discussion towards the end of the 30s. Soon to follow would be the opening of the first McDonalds and Dairy Queen in the early 1940s (9). If what was known then about the negative health affects Americans would experience from frequenting fast food chains, one has to wonder if there would be any earlier changes in the way food is processed and produced for these places. Martha Lewis Nelson was a pioneer in exploring total education of dietitians (8). The original dietetic program was a four-year course at a University with a major in food and nutrition, with a six-month dietetic internship. In 1942, Lewis was the director of Medical Dietetics at Ohio State University and she redesigned the internship program, making it possible to earn a Master of Science degree along with the internship (8). Many institutions today use this curriculum to develop education programs for dietetics. In 1966, nutrition and diet therapy services were included in comprehensive medical care programs. Clare Forbes, a Massachusetts delegate to the ADAs House of Delegates, was the force behind this movement (8). Forbes is credited for developing future state legislative programs and guiding the development of the ADAs mission statement (8). Twenty-six years ago, in 1982, the ADAs capacity to reach the public on food nutrition, and health concerns was forever changed. A new resource center, National Canter for Nutrition and Dietetics, was funded through a capital fund program (9). National Nutrition Month is one of the outreach programs that are very active today. The purpose of National Nutrition Month is to help make people aware of necessity of a healthy lifestyle and diet. Many more factors go into health other than just what a person eats. Diet and exercise go hand in hand. If it were not for the good old girls Alice Blood, Lulu Graves, Martha Lewis Nelson, and Claire Forbes, the American Dietetic Association may not exist today. It is up to those in the profession to get the message out to the public about good health and nutrition so that money and lives can be saved in the long run. Over the past 20 years, many new diet fads have been introduced. Some of these diets have proven to be effective and safe while others are effective and unsafe. Most often the results are temporary, as the people get bored with the same food or routine and then end up failing. Reading nutrition labels and ingredient lists on foods has become more popular in the past couple of years, as people now have a better idea of what they are looking for. There are multiple commercials, newspaper articles, and health magazines that give health alerts to new findings in the food that people eat. With all of the sources in which nutrition facts and health information can be found, Americans are far more educated now than they ever have been before. The image is to get into shape and live healthier lifestyles. The advancements in medical technology have expanded the role of the dietetic professional on so many levels. Special diets, mechanically altered foods, and diagnosis of new disease conditions have forced nutritional professionals to test and experiment with new ways of feeding patients and ensuring that they are receiving appropriate nutrition. References Cannon G. The rise and fall of dietetics and of nutrition science, 4000 BCE-2000 CE. Public Health Nutrition. 2005;8(6A):701-705. Roth D. Americas fascination with nutrition. Available at: http://www.ers. usda.gov/publications/foodreview/jan2000/frjan2000f.pdf. Accessed February 25, 2008. History of Home Economics at Ryerson. Ryerson University Web site Available at: http://www.ryerson.ca/~foodnut/alumni/history_he.html. Accessed February 4, 2008. Antoine Lavoisier. Available at: http://mattson.creighton.edu/History_ Gas_Chemistry/Lavoisier.html. Accessed February 25, 2008. Wilbur Olin Atwater. Wikipedia online. Available at: http://en.wikipedia. Org/wiki/Wilbur_Olin_Atwater. Accessed February 25, 2008. Welsh S. Atwater to the Present: Evolution of Nutrition Education. Journal of Nutrition [serial online]. September 1994;124:1799S-1807S. Available from: Academic Search Premier, Ipwich, MA. Accessed February 25, 2008. Florence Nightingale. Wikipedia online. Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/ Wiki/Florence_Nightingale. Accessed February 24, 2008. Fitz P. Presidents page about 80 years ago. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003;98(3):264. Petrillo T. Live the ADA legacy-annually. J Am Diet Assoc. 2002;102(8):1046 -1050. 10. The Discovery of Insulin-The history of diabetes treatment. About.com Web site. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/bldiabetes.htm. Accessed February 22, 2008.

Abnormal Behavior Is Defined as Behavior That Is Not Normal Essay

Abnormal behavior is defined as behavior that is not normal; what does that mean? How do we know if behavior is normal or not? The field of psychology uses four distinct definitions to define abnormal behavior, these are; Statistical Definition, Social Norm Deviance, Subjective Discomfort, and the Inability to Function Normally. Each of these definitions has distinct characteristics which separate each from the other. Statistical Definition is taking a mathematical approach to defining what normal behavior is and what normal behavior is not. Mathematics tells us that if the majority of the population is behaving in a certain manner then the part of the population which is behaving in a way that is different than the majority, is abnormal. We look at emotions and we observe how the majority of the population acts when they are sad, we compare the expressions they have, the words they share with other members of the population when they are sad; if one group shows more severe emotions than the other then we would say they are behaving abnormally; for instance, if when sad some individuals say they want to kill themselves we would say that is not a normal phrase that comes from someone who is sad. Social Norm Deviance closely follows statistical definition where we compare individuals to the social majority for their geographical area. I mentioned geographical area because how the social norm behaves in some parts of the world is different than how the social norm behaves in other parts of the world. Individuals in Northern Canada may be generally more depressed than individuals in Miami, Florida. The reasoning is behind Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD); people in Northern Canada get less daylight then the people in Miami, Florida. Because of this I would suspect that they as a social norm are generally sadder than the social norm in Florida. If we compared the population in northern Canada to the population in Miami Florida, with respect to how sad they are, it wouldn’t be an accurate comparison, similar to comparing apples to oranges; they are both generally round but cannot be accurately compared. Subjective Discomfort is a good sign for abnormal behavior. When a person experiences emotional distress or discomfort when behaving a certain way we can assume that the behavior is not normal. I remember once I was at a bus stop in Boston and I asked one of the attendants if the bus I was next too was the correct bus to where I was going. He started hitting himself in the head and kept repeating â€Å"yes the D bus, yes the D bus† This distress he was experiencing from answering my simples question was very abnormal in my view, I can use Social Norm Deviance, also, to say that this individuals actions were not typical of those behavior exhibited by the social norm when asked a simple question. The inability to function normally is seen as a behavior which doesn’t allow a person to handle the daily activities of functionality; activities such as; walking down the street, talking to another person, not being afraid of every snake or spider that they come across. The ability to function normally, as seen by the norm of the population, is critical to living in this world. If individuals cannot function normally they will not be able to hold a job, will not be able to converse with other, they will be labeled as abnormal. Abnormal behavior is a normal part of human development, not that everyone experiences abnormal behavior but most of us experience some. Abnormal behavior such as depression, fright, and obsession are all common to the majority. When the abnormal behavior begins to affect our daily lives is when problems start to happen. The field of psychology has been studying abnormal behavior since the beginning of psychology, although huge strides have been taken to diagnose and help abnormal behavior, mankind has leaps and bounds to go until abnormal behavior can cured, if at all. ?

5. the Best Way to Spend a Holiday.

1. Intonation. Its functions. Much has been said about the importance of paying due attention to intonation when studying a foreign language. The process of communication cannot be performed without intonation as it has its own functions in a sentence. These functions are: 1. The constitutive 2. The distinctive (1) Intonation forms sentences. Each sentence consists of one or more intonation groups. An intonation group is a word or a group of words characterized by a certain intonation pattern and is generally complete from the point of view of meaning. E. g.You’ll come early | and stay as long as you can | won’t you || Sentences are separated from each other by pauses. The end of a sentence is always recognized by a long pause; the end of a non-final intonation group is usually characterized by a shorter pause. E. g. He’s passed his exam || He is a student now || Like most old people | he was fond of talking about old days || (2) Intonation also serves to disting uish the communicative types of sentences, the actual meaning of a sentence, the speaker’s emotions or attitudes to the contents of the sentence, to the listener or to the topic of conversation. E. g.He’s passed his exam || Low-Fall – a statement of fact High-Rise – a question Low-Rise – a question with surprise High-Fall – an exclamation One and the same sentence pronounced with different intonation can express different emotions. Intonation is also a powerful means of differentiating the functional styles. 2. The components of the intonation 1) Speech melody or the pitch. The sentence possesses definite phonetic features: variations of pitch or speech melody, pauses, sentence stress, rhythm, tempo and timbre. Each feature performs a definite task and all of them work simultaneously.It is generally acknowledged that the pitch of the voice or speech melody, sentence stress and rhythm are the three main components of intonation, whilst pauses , tempo and timbre play a subordinate role in speech. The pitch of the voice does not stay on the same level while the sentence is pronounced. It falls and rises within the interval between its lower and upper limits. Three pitch levels are generally distinguished: high, medium and low. The pitch of the voice rises and falls on the vowels and voiced consonants. These falls and rises form definite patterns typical of English and are called speech melody.Pitch Range is the interval between two pitch levels. It may be normal, wide and narrow. E. g. I didn’t know you’ve been to London. The use of this or that pitch (and range) shows the degree of its semantic importance. As a rule the low pitch level expresses little semantic weight, on the contrary the high pitch level is a sign of importance, stronger degree of feeling. 2) Rhythm Rhythm is a regular recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables at definite intervals. The characteristic features of English speech rhythm may be summed up as follows: 1.The regularity of the recurrence of stressed and unstressed syllables results in the pronunciation of each rhythmic group in a sense-group in the same period of time irrespective to the number of unstressed syllables in it. Which in its turn influences the length of sounds, especially vowels. 2. The alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables results in the influence of rhythm upon word-stress and sentence-stress. There are as many rhythmical groups in a sense-group as there are stressed syllables. Rhythmic groups can be of two types:  ·enclitics – a rhythmic group in which an unstressed syllable clings to the preceding stressed syllable. proclitics – a rhythmic group in which an unstressed syllable clings to the following stressed syllable. To acquire a good English speech rhythm one should arrange sentences: 1) into intonation groups; 2) into rhythmic groups; 3) link the words beginning with a vowel to preceding words; 4) weaken unstressed words and syllables; 5) make the stressed syllables occur regularly within an intonation group. Sentence stress A separate word when used alone as a sentence is always stressed. In a sentence consisting of more than one word, some of the words are left unstressed.They are the words of small semantic value or those with a purely grammatical function: articles, prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliary, modal and link verbs, personal and reflective pronouns. Words essential to the meaning of the utterance are normally stressed (nouns, adjectives, notional verbs, adverbs, demonstrative and interrogative pronouns). So words that provide most of the information are singled out by means of sentence stress. Sentence stress is a greater prominence with which one or more words are in a sentence are pronounced as compared with the other words according to their informational (semantic) importance.This greater prominence is achieved by: 1. Greater force of exhalation and muscular tensi on. 2. Changing of the pitch level. 3. Pronouncing the stressed syllables longer. 4. Not changing the quality of a vowel in the stressed syllable. The most important piece of information conveyed in the sentence is called its communicative centre. It may be expressed by a single word or a number of words. Usually it is the last word in a sense-group and it carries the terminal tone. The main function of sentence stress is to single out the communicative centre of the sentence, which introduces new information.So it performs a distinctive function and distinguished the speaker’s modal and emotional attitude to the words. Sentence stress may vary in degree. It may be full and partial. Full sentence stress in its turn may be unemphatic and emphatic. 1) Partial sentence stress is indicated by single stress-marks places below the line of print. E. g. I haven’t the slightest idea. 2) Full unemphatic sentence stress is indicated by single stress-marks placed above the line of print. E. g. I haven’t the slightest idea. ) Full emphatic sentence stress is effected by greater force of utterance, greater force of exhalation and lengthening the sounds. Emphatically stresses syllables become more prominent and sound longer than syllables with unemphatic stress. It is indicated by double stress-marks. E. g. Stop talking! Sentence stress can also be subdivided as to its function into syntagmatic stress, syntactic stress and logical stress. Syntagmatic stress presents the most important functional type. Together with the main tones it singles out the semantic centre of the sentence or a sense-group.In sentences where no word is made specially prominent syntagmatic stress is usually realized in the last stressed word. E. g. I am sending you two tickets for the theatre. Syntactic (or normal) stress marks the other semantically important words within the utterance. E. g. I am sending you two tickets for the theatre. Logical stress is connected with the shifti ng of the syntagmatic stress from its normal place on the last stressed word to one of the preceding words. It often expresses something new to the listener and creates a new communicative centre. Specific features of the English sentence stressThough we know that usually notional words are stressed in the sentence and form (functional) words are unstressed it is necessary to point out that any word in a sentence may have logical stress. A word which is made prominent by logical stress may stand at the beginning; at the end or in the middle of a sense-group but it is usually the last stressed word in it. Sentence stress on words following logical stress either disappears or becomes weak. Besides functional words may be stressed in some special cases: I. Auxiliary, modal and link verbs are stressed in the following positions: 1.At the beginning of the sentence in general and alternative questions. E. g. Can you come? Did you meet him? 2. When they stand for a notional verb in short a nswers for general questions. E. g. Yes, I am. Yes I have. 3. In contracted negative forms. E. g. He didn’t do it. 4. to be is stressed when final and preceded by the object which is unstressed. E. g. I want him to be here. 5. Auxiliary verb to do is stressed in emphatic sentences. E. g. I do like it! II. Prepositions are stressed when they consist of two or more syllables and are followed by an unstressed personal pronoun. E. g. The dog ran after him.III. Conjunctions are stressed at the beginning of a sentence when followed by an unstressed word. E. g. When he had gone | she went home too. If he drives | he may be here at any moment. IV. When a personal pronoun is connected by the conjunction ‘and’ with a noun they are both stressed. E. g. My mother and I. V. ‘Have to’ is stressed in the meaning of ‘must’. E. g. He has to go. The general rules for sentence stress are sometimes not observed: a word that should be stressed according to t hese rules may be left unstressed. In most cases it is rhythm that is responsible for the omission of stress.Compounds are influenced in the following way: 1. When preceded by a stressed syllable they are stressed on the second element. E. g They are all first-class. It is too old-fashioned. 2. When used as attributes before nouns stressed on the first syllable, the stress falls on the first element of the compound. E. g. She is a good-looking girl. 3. When two nouns occur together the first being used attributively, the second is not stressed. E. g film-star, telephone-book. But if the second noun is polysyllabic it must be stressed. E. g. picture gallery, detective story.Some words belonging to the notional parts of speech are not stressed in certain cases: 1. When a word is repeated in a sense-group immediately following, the repetition is generally unstressed. E. g. – How many books have you got? – Two books. 2. Word-substitutes like ‘one’ are usually unstressed. E. g. I don’t like this dress. Show me that red one. 3. When the word ‘most’ does not express comparison, but a high degree of quality and is equivalent to ‘very’, ‘extremely’ it is not stressed. E. g. This is a most beautiful picture. 4. The pronoun ‘each’ in ‘each other’ is always unstressed. E. g.They loved each other. 5. The adverb ‘so’ in ‘do so’, ‘think so’ is not stressed. 6. The conjunctions ‘as’ in the constructions of the type ‘as well as’ is not stressed. 7. The word ‘street’ in the names of streets is never stressed. E. g. Oxford street. Differences with the Russian language 1. Good morning! ! Good night! ! 2. She’s as pretty as her mother. ? . 3. He did not say a word. . 4. In English the final stress does not fall on the last element in the word combinations: ‘and so on’, Ã¢â‚¬Ë œand so forth’, ‘in a day or two’ etc. nd so on? . He will come in a day or two. . 5. In English general questions the final stress falls on the adverbials or on direct object following the verb (in Russian on the verb). Do you speak English? - Will you go home? The Intonation Group An intonation group may be a whole sentence or a part of it. In either case it may consist of a single word or a number of words. An intonation group has the following characteristics: 1. It has at least one accented (stressed) word carrying a marked change in pitch (a rise, a fall†¦). 2.It is pronounced at a certain rate and without any pause within it. The pitch-and-stress pattern or the intonation pattern of the intonation group consists of the following elements: 1. the pre-head – unstressed or partially stressed syllables which precede the first full stressed syllable; 2. the head (scale, body) – the intonation pattern extending from the first stress ed syllable up to (but not including) the nuclear syllable; 3. the nucleus – the syllable bearing the nuclear (terminal) tone; 4. the tail – unstressed or partially stressed syllables following the nucleus. He told me he would think of it. _____________________ ______________________ pre-head head nucleus tail There are different types of pre-heads, heads and tails. Types of heads. Head patterns are classified into three groups: descending, ascending and level according to the way it begins from the point of view of pitch movement. Descending heads move down from a medium or a high pitch level to the low one. The first stressed syllable is the highest. In the stepping head the stressed syllables gradually descend in pitch levels, unstressed or partially stressed syllables are pronounced on the same level as the preceding stressed ones.This head conveys the impression of the balanced, active, â€Å"normal† mood of the speaker. I don’t want to go to the cin ema. _________________________ _________________________ The unstressed syllables may gradually descend in pitch too. In this case the head is called a falling head. ________________________ ________________________ A fall in pitch may not be gradual but rather jumpy which is achieved by a considerable lowering of the pitch inside the stressed syllables or by pronouncing unstressed syllables at a much lower level than the preceding stressed ones. Such a head is called the sliding head.It usually reflects an excited state of mind and, sometimes, a highly emotional attitude to the situation. I don’t want to go to the cinema. _________________________ _________________________ Ascending heads are the opposite of the descending heads: their stressed syllables move up by steps with the intervening unstressed ones continuing the rise and in this case it is a rising head. I don’t want to go to the cinema. _________________________ _________________________ If the voice moves up jumpy the head is called climbing. Unstressed syllables glide up too. __________________________ _________________________ In level heads all the syllables are pronounced on the same level (or gradually ascends towards the nucleus) either high or medium or low. So there are three level heads correspondingly. It is shown by the tone mark before the first stressed syllable. [ ] Low head conveys an impression ranging from cool and indifferent to sulky and hostile. Types of pre-head There are two types of pre-head: the low pre-head and the high pre-head. The low pre-head is pronounced at a low pitch and may occur in all unemphatic and many emphatic utterances.Its main semantic function is to mark the comparative unimportance of initial unstressed syllables. The high pre-head is pronounced at a high pitch level. It has a clearly emphatic function. Before a rising tone it usually gives a bright, lively, encouraging character to the utterance. The high pre-head is marked by the tone-str ess mark ( ) placed before the first syllable above the line of print. Types of tails There are two types of tails: the low tail and the rising tail. The low tail goes after the falling tone and is pronounced at a low pitch. Show me. __________ __________The rising tail occurs after the rising tone and gradually rises in pitch producing the very effect of the rising tone whilst the word carrying the syntagmatic stress is pronounced on the lowest level in the sense-group. Really? ________ ________ The notion of â€Å"tone†. Static and kinetic tones. Prominent segments of an utterance are usually associated with a pitch change (or a pitch contrast) combined with increased force of articulation and increased duration. Such a cooperation of different phonetic features is reflected in the notion of the tone – the basic element of English intonation.Tones are divided into two classes: static and kinetic. Static are level tones, their number corresponds to the number of pitch levels. Kinetic tones are classified according to the following criteria: a) the direction of the pitch change; b) the interval of the pitch change; c) the relative position of the pitch change within the speaker’s voice range. Static and kinetic tones differ not only in form but also in function. Static tones give prominence to words. The degree of prominence is proportional to the pitch height of the static tone – the higher the tone, the greater the prominence.Kinetic tones are more significant for the sentence. Kinetic tones perform a number of functions in a sentence: 1. Indicate the communicative type of a sentence. 2. Express the emotional state of the speaker, his attitude towards the subject-matter and the situation. 3. Single out the centre of semantic importance in a sentence. The most common kinetic tones of Modern English are: The Low Fall – the voice falls from a medium to a very low pitch. The Low Rise – the voice rises from a low to a med ium pitch. The High Fall – the voice falls from a high to a very low pitch. The High Rise – the voice rises from a medium to a high pitch.The Fall-Rise – the voice first falls from a fairly high to a rather low pitch and then rises to a medium pitch. The Rise-Fall – the voice first rises from a medium to a high pitch and then falls to a very low pitch. The falling tones carry a sense of completion and finality and are categoric in character. The rising tones carry incompletion and are non-categoric in character. Combinations of nuclei, heads, tails, and pre-heads lead to a great variety of melodic patterns in English intonation. The melodic structure of the language is a simple system of patterns based upon the most important linguistic functions of intonation.Since the most significant component of intonation is speech melody, and the most important word of an utterance is made prominent by one of the special tones typical of the language, it is natural to systematize the melodic patterns according to these special tones. Thus the great variety of possible patterns can be reduced to six Intonation Contours (IC), based on the six main tones used in the nuclei. These tones, when combined with different heads, tails and pre-heads, give rise to a few significative variants of the intonation contour.